F.+Krashen's+Work


 * The Work of Stephen Krashen **



This page is designed to inform you about the work of perhaps the most widely know and controversial SLA theorists, Stephen Krashen.

Who is Stephen Krashen? Krashen is recognized in both the fields of linguistics and education for his innovative approaches to SLA. A professor emeritus from the University of Southern California, his "Monitor Model" and "Natural Approach" to pedagogy have been very influential in the fields of language acquisition and second language education. Krashen is also a well know advocate of Bilingual Education.

Krashen's "Monitor Model" (1982)  Krashen's five hypotheses regarding second language acquisition have had a great influence on second language classroom instruction. Krashen proposes that:

1. __//the acquisition-learning hypothesis//__: acquisition occurs through the subconscious "picking-up" of the characteristics of L2 and eventually results in spontaneous communication in real contexts. Consciously focusing on the rules of the language may result in learning, but not true acquisition. As a result of this hypotheses, many experts suggest that **contextualized instruction** where students themselves notice language patterns, rather than explicit grammar instruction, is ideal. 

2. __//the monitor hypothesis//:__ consciously knowing the rules of the language causes the learner to "monitor" or edit their language output and may hinder the learner in spontaneous production. This hypothesis is another basis for contextual rather than explicit grammar instruction.  3. __//the natural order hypothesis//__: learners acquire the rules of a language in a predictable order that is independent of the order in which the rules may have been presented. This hypothesis is the basis for the presentation of **thematic units** of instruction rather than grammatically sequenced units in second language teaching. 

4. __//the input hypothesis//__: acquisition occurs when learners receive **comprehensible input**. Comprehensible input is described as input just beyond the learners current level of competence (//i// +1). Input can be made comprehensible through background knowledge, context clues, visual aids, gestures or other extralinguistic cues. This theory suggests that input should be meaningful and relevant to the second language learner so that they can rely on background knowledge to interpret meaning. For more information on input, see the video clip below.

5. __//the affective filter hypothesis//__: learners acquire language most easily when their anxiety is low and they can focus on the input provided to them and process it using their Language Acquisition Device. Students with high levels of anxiety will not be able to comprehend input. This hypothesis relates to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and the need for safety, security and belonging before higher order thinking can occur. In second language classrooms the implications of this hypothesis include the need for a **low stress environment** and low pressure to produce output initially in the language classroom.

The Natural Approach As a result of these hypotheses Krashen and Tracey Terrell created some general classroom guidelines based in the "Monitor Model." The goal of "natural" instruction is communicative competence and conveying meaning is more important than focus on form.

Some guiding principles include: 1. __language "emergence"__- <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 117%;"> Comprehension will proceed production in second language acquisition. This means that a "silent period" in which students listen to input but do not respond is to be expected. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">

2. __"emergence" in stages__- <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 117%;">Students will recognize and produce language in predictable stages. (For more information on this topic see my Second Language Acquisition page.) <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">

3. __minimal error correction__- <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 117%;">Students' emerging speech will be characterized by errors. Some error correction may be useful, but over-correction could result in a high affective filter. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">

4. __low affective filter__- <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 117%;">Students will not learn in an environment where they do not feel it is safe to make errors and negotiate meaning. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;"> (Cook, 2010)

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Additional Information Below are links to more information of Krashen's professional life and his theories.

[|Krashen's Achievement Profile on ESL MiniConference] This is an interview transcript with Krashen on ESL and his theories.

[|Krashen on NPR- What's the Best Way to Teach English?] Here you will find a video of Krashen discussing the best way to approach ESL.

[|Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition] This site is a general overview of Krashen's theories on language acquisition.

[|The Natural Approach Website] This site provides more detailed information on classroom implications of Krashen's hypotheses.

Krashen Critiques The sites below provide critiques of Krashen's work and introduce alternatives to his approach. [|Krashen and Terrell's "Natural Approach"] [|Timothy Mason's Krashen Critique- Input Only?] [|Krashen Burn by Jill Stewart]

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Here is a YouTube video clip in which Krashen speaks on comprehensible input.

media type="youtube" key="4K11o19YNvk" height="385" width="480"

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif;">References Cook, V. (2010) Krashen's Comprehension Hypothesis Model of L2 Learning. Retrieved June 1, 2010 from http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/Krashen.htm

Gass, S.M. & Selinker, L. (2008). //Second language acquisition: An introductory course// (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge.

Glisan, E. & Shrum, J. (2000) //Teacher’s handbook: Contextualized language instruction//.Boston: Heinle &Heinle

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Jessica de Araujo Jorge Graduate Student [|Middle Tennessee State University] jlm2w@mtmail.mtsu.edu Foreign Language Department Chair [|Hendersonville High School] jessica.dearaujojorge@sumnerschools.org